The Road to Climate Smart Agriculture in Kenya: Policy Analysis and Legal Reforms 1

Abstract 2

1.1 Introduction 2

1.1.1 Importance of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in the Context of Kenya 3

1.1.2 Objectives of the paper and a brief overview of Findings 4

1.2 Background 4

1.2.1 Overview of Climate Smart Agriculture. 4

1.2.2 Importance and relevance of Climate Smart Agriculture to Kenya’s agricultural landscape. 6

1.3 Literature Review 8

1.3.1 Summary of existing research on Climate Smart Agriculture practices globally and in Kenya. 8

1.3.2 Review of Kenya’s current policy, legal, and regulatory framework related to agriculture and climate change 9

1.4 Analysis 10

1.4.1 Current Policy and Legal Framework 10

1.4.2 Effectiveness of these frameworks in promoting sustainable agricultural practices 12

1.5 Gaps and Challenges 14

1.5.1 Identification of gaps in the current framework. 14

1.5.2 Discussion of challenges faced in implementing effective CSA practices. 14

1.6 Case Studies 18

1.6.1 Examples where CSA has been successfully implemented or faced significant hurdles in Kenya. 18

1.6.2 Specific recommendations for policy adjustments or new regulations to better support CSA 19

1.6.3 Conclusion 20

Bibliography 22

Abstract

This article delves into the trajectory of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in Kenya and emphasizes the vital role played by legal reforms and policies currently in place in propagating sustainable agricultural practices. Kenya has varying agroecological zones and significant dependence on agricultural trade but faces considerable challenges from climate change, i.e. prolonged periods of drought, erratic rainfall, and increased temperature levels. To mitigate these shortfalls, the Kenya government and various relevant stakeholders have collaboratively initiated numerous policy frameworks and legal permutations to achieve the promotion of CSA.

Through the examination of key policies and legal instruments and their adequacy and effectiveness in the establishment of a working framework for climate adaptation in agriculture. Furthermore, the study highlights the mantle carried by international funding and partnerships in the reinforcement of Kenya’s CSA initiatives. Through alignment of ground-level agricultural practices with current and prospective policies, Kenya is better poised to navigate the intricate world of climate change and build a sustainable agrarian future.

This article seeks to contribute to the current dialogue on Climate Smart Agriculture by providing insights into the coaction exhibited between law, policy, and agricultural resilience within Kenya’s agricultural zones, and seeks to serve as a cross-reference to all relevant stakeholders engaged in climate adaptation in line with the Sustainable Development Goals.

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture plays a critical role in providing footing to Kenya's economy contributing to the GDP directly (25%) and indirectly (27%). Kenya has a rain-fed (98%) and small-scale agriculture in the mainly medium to high-potential parts which only occupies about 15% of the country. The rest of the country (83-89% of the total territory), experiences low and unpredictable rains averaging 400 mm yearly. This is even more dramatic considering land degradation, scarce land, farming resources, credit and markets, insufficient incentives for investment in agriculture, weak formal and informal producers association and deficient institutions, and regional unity. Consequently, these all contribute to the….> This has later resulted in depletion of their abilities to produce and their toughness, the reason for their being weak in the fight against poverty and food insecurity. It is the aspect of climate change is more pronounced through unstable dry and rainy seasons . For instance, the occurrences of heavy rains and droughts are becoming more frequent[2]. These acts bring about negative outcomes for the national economy, but more importantly, the million of households affected. While natural disasters and extreme weather events may have direct correlation with negative Gross Domestic Product growth rates, unless the climate change issue is taken care of, the future economic costs are ascertained to be 3% of GDP per annum by 2030 and 5% by 2050. Actually, global warming will most probably worsen the fragility of the agricultural system, and farmers used to cope with unpredictable situations will be no longer able to do it[3].

In that case, announcements of innovative measures might be one of the ways to strengthen farmers and consumers all in the face of variability and change of climatic conditions that are emerging and likely to come. The Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Implementation Framework of 2018- 2027 (KCSAIF), together referred to as “the Framework”, has been developed so that it can produce the CSA implementation guidelines, techniques, strategies, and technologies in Kenya. CSA lies between boosting agricultural production output and adaptation to a variety of practices to eliminate inefficacy. This would require collaborative actions amongst the various actors along the value chain, including: The national government, county government, farmers, the private sector, development partners, Non-Governmental Organizations, Civil Society Organizations, and other majority actors contain the whole value chain[4].

1.1.1 Importance of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in the Context of Kenya

Kenya's economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, with a large proportion of the population engaged in farming activities for their livelihoods. However, the agricultural sector is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, including erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and increased incidences of pests and diseases. CSA practices offer viable solutions to address these challenges by promoting climate-resilient farming techniques and sustainable land management practices. CSA plays a crucial role in enhancing food security and nutrition in Kenya. By adopting CSA practices such as drought-resistant crop varieties, agroforestry, and water harvesting techniques, farmers can improve crop yields and ensure a steady food supply even in the face of climate variability. This is particularly important in a country where food insecurity remains a pressing issue, affecting millions of people, especially in rural areas[5].

CSA contributes to poverty reduction and rural development by empowering smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority of agricultural producers in Kenya. By implementing CSA practices, farmers can diversify their income streams, improve their resilience to climate shocks, and enhance their overall productivity and incomes. This, in turn, can lead to improved livelihoods and economic opportunities in rural communities[6].

Furthermore, CSA aligns with Kenya's national development goals, including the Vision 2030 and the Big Four Agenda, which prioritize food security, poverty reduction, and sustainable development. By investing in climate-smart agriculture, Kenya can achieve broader social, economic, and environmental objectives, including gender equality, environmental conservation, and climate change adaptation and mitigation.

1.1.2 Objectives of the paper and a brief overview of Findings

The objectives of this paper are:

1. To examine the current policy and legal framework which advances Climate Smart Agriculture in Kenya
2. To establish the effectiveness of these frameworks in promoting sustainable agricultural practices in Kenya
3. To identify the gaps in the current framework that advance Climate Smart Agriculture in Kenya
4. To establish challenges faced in implementing effective CSA practices in Kenya

1.2 Background

1.2.1 Overview of Climate Smart Agriculture.

Climate-smart agriculture is an idea that is utterly directed towards heightening the level of integration of climate alongside agricultural development. CSA is focused on ensuring food security and promoting the ambitious goals of development in a world contaminated by changing climate and rapidly growing food demands. CSA measures restore crop production, secure stability, and level down carbon footprints by nature[7]. Increased planning is vital to address tradeoffs and synergies between the three pillars: efficiency, ability to adapt, and preventing and keeping in check the escalation of climate change. Integrating environment, society as well as economy, CSA has been considered as a connecting cross cutting approach to enhance production landscapes, which can align priorities among different countries and stakeholders, resulting in more efficient, effective and equitable food systems. The innovation is at the experimental stage and it is expected to adapt in years since some of the services which make crop insurance exist worldwide. They are already used by farmers to mitigate the risk of various production processes. The fusion of CSA with the mainstream systems relies on assessing, examining, improving, and identifying the successful completion of ongoing practices, and funding the necessary enablers, nationally and globally. Through this profile, we are striving to provide a comprehensive set of observations for multiple parties to delve into and come up with concrete alternative solutions and approaches from the national and international levels to invest in CSA at scale[8].

The Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is about the production of agricultural by-products and systems that are intended to yield higher productivity, improve resilience to climate change and lower carbon dioxide emissions. The IDR comprises multiple strategies including conservation agriculture, agroforestry, crop diversification, and improved water management methods. CSA involves a strategy that is based on the concepts of sustainability, forecasting, and mitigation, the approach will be supportive of, among others, food security and livelihoods for present and future generations[9]. The idea of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) involves the use of techniques that maintain resilience, productivity, and profitability all while eliminating or reducing damages to the natural ecosystem as much as possible. In its essence, CSA is a strategy that intends to heighten crisis preparedness of agricultural systems for climatic changes; decreasing the release of greenhouse gases and promoting farm efficiency leading to improved revenue. These include a diversity of measures such as practices, technologies and policy support at local level helping for adaptation and mitigation in a way of making it accordance with the holding environment[10].

One important pillar of CSS is proper sustainable intensification, which is an attempt to attain high agricultural productivity and minimize degradation of the environment simultaneously. These basically consist of conservation farming, agroforestry and integrated pest management that help achieve soil health improvement, water efficiency and conservation. Insuring farmers for the use of climate-tolerant crop varieties and the diversification of agriculture systems to be the norm, CSA hence helps the farmers to increase their odds against the risks associated with weather-related shocks such as droughts and floods. The third main factor of the CSA approach is to decrease greenhouse gas emissions which agricultural sectors emit to the atmosphere. Such activities include better utilizing fertilizers and livestock management as well as reforestation which can mitigate more carbon dioxide, and decline in methane and nitrous oxide that are potent greenhouse gases. Farmer should be invested in low-carbon production techniques to become a component as well as a recipient in the global fight against climate change[11].

On the other hand, CSA inscribes the fact that the way of addressing climate change is by integrating the climate policies, institutions, and financing in the agricultural policies. This is done by provision of climate data and early warning systems, provision of incentives to adopt climate-smart technologies, and encouraging participatory governance that aligns with the diverse community and stakeholders' interests. The governments can easily adopt CSA proposals into their development strategies for agriculture which will in turn heighten the climate change adaptation measures among farmers and the achievement of sustainable agriculture growth[12].

1.2.2 Importance and relevance of Climate Smart Agriculture to Kenya’s agricultural landscape.

Agriculture sector in Kenya is the pivot of a nation, providing employment for the largest population and making the biggest contribution to GDP. Nevertheless, the sector confronts enormous challenges like climatic change that has impacted on crop yield, with loss of the soil and water scarcity being the common ones. Here, this CSA adds a major aspect to the capability of the country in the agricultural landscape.

CSA is an avenue to respond effectively to the challenging consequences of climate change effects in Kenya's agriculture sector. The country is already feeling the impacts rather than plain sailing in the form of the chaotic rainfall patterns, duration of droughts, and occurrence of pest and disease outbreaks, all of which affect food security and livelihoods. The issue is laced with crewel when it is linked to the fact that the country depends on rain-fed agriculture, which puts farmers in a much worse situation since they are highly sensitive to the climate irregularities as well as extreme weather situations. On the other hand, the CSA gives farmers an option to employ technological and institutional modifications and strategies that remedy the impediments emanating from changing climates, while at the same time, helping to keep their agricultural productivity steady and their systems strong[13].

Crop diversification, which includes varieties with drought resistance, will improve farmers' water resilience and ensure that they withstand water scarcity even during times of low rainfall. These drought resistant crop breeds are capable of growing well even when it is dry and this can result in their farmers requiring much less water than usually goes into growing crops and therefore lesser dependence on the rain as well as spoilt harvests even during dry spells. Furthermore, growers can improve water usage by employing a rainwater storing idea, like constructing ponds or using drip irrigation technologyto reduce the impacts of water scarcity, which is the leading cause of crop destruction during dry periods. Moreover, agroforestry systems may have lots of potential applications in the improvement of the resilience of agricultural landscapes in Kenya. Adding an element of tree and bush rows into the agriculture system plays a role to enhance the soil fertility, lessening soil erosion, and acting as a shelter and shade for farm animals. In addition, agroforestry offers an alternative to a one-crop or livestock system by allowing farmers to collect timber, fruits, and other types of non-timber forest products, hence reducing the vulnerability to change in market price. On the other hand, trees have a dual effect on carbon dioxide by acting as carbon sinks, which means they sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and in the process contribute to the climate change mitigation efforts[14].

CSA strongly ties in with the overall national development aspirations such as the vision 2030 which focus on the ending of food insecurity and other forms of vulnerability characterized by poverty, a similar agenda referred to as the Big Four Agenda. Those far-reaching agendas for development realize that agriculture is integral to the economic and social transformation of Kenya, and participate in combating some menaces facing the country, like poverty and food shortages, among others. Through the promotion of climate-smart agriculture within a wide context of policy frameworks, Kenya can benefit from the synergies between agricultural growth and sustainable development goals, surpassing current levels and achieving much higher impact of interventions and investments[15].

1.3 Literature Review

1.3.1 Summary of existing research on Climate Smart Agriculture practices globally and in Kenya.

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) stands a chance to be an ally in the movement to the challenge of climate change as well as facilitating the economic growth and advancement of the agriculture sector. In the profile of CSA we take CSA practices which in certain cases maintain the productivity level or give the increase or at least one of the objectives of CSA which is adaptation or mitigation. Even though a vast number of different technologies and approaches to CSA exist all over the world, the term CSA can be used on its own. CSA continues to take root well in the Kenyan farming sector. The reason for this lies in that agriculture is seen as a sector with a big potential to contribute to the realization of a number of Sustainable Development Goals including food security, nutrition, poverty reduction and adaptation to changes in climatic conditions and its mitigation[16].

The article Kenya Climate Change Action Plan (2013–2017) notes CSA practices that are of great significance, i.e. agroforestry, conservation tillage, fire limited in agricultural areas, drought-tolerant crops planted, water harvests, and integrated soil fertility management, among other things. Besides using traditional agricultural industries, farmers in Kenya also try outstanding modern outputs and technologies in both crop and livestock production. For example, the production of biogas can be done using biodigesters which are very popular in dairy farms in humid areas as a case in point, as well as the improvement of pasture management in agroforestry systems, seen in both the highlands and the sub-humid zones with the additional of grass-legume associations in dairy production (intensive and extensive). The Kenyan farmers employ terracing and contour strip cropping techniques for coffee production, beans, as well as maize growing. Apart from that, water-efficient irrigation methods by the principle of furrowing are applied in rice grows (mostly in the East) and drought-resistant varieties are well intercropped with cereals and legumes (beans, pigeon peas, cowpeas) in semi-arid areas. A majority of these actions aim at strengthening the system, and so, for instance, resilience to harsh environments like droughts can be when crops and livestock are used[17].

1.3.2 Review of Kenya’s current policy, legal, and regulatory framework related to agriculture and climate change

The current legal, policy, and regulatory framework concerning agriculture and climate change in Kenya stands as a demonstration of Kenya's commitment towards dealing with the problem of climate change and its effect on the agriculture sector. Internationally, Kenya is a party to a number of agreements and conventions, rich in their number such as the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which testifies that the country appreciates the role of global cooperation in curbing climate change problems[18].

Furthermore, Kenya has been a very active participant in local initiatives such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) Framework and the East African Community Climate Change Policy in its region. These frameworks focus on carbon sinks through Land and water management research, technology adoption, and greenhouse gas emission reduction from agriculture that are the key pillars in Kenya's CSA implementation. However, what follows is a plethora of international and regional governance commitments at the nation and the subnational level which seem to be an insurmountable task by Kenya to convert the policy objectives into effective implementation. The fact that a number of ministries and departments of state are involved in agriculture, which makes coordination among professionals a problem, has engendered disjoint in implementing policy[19].

Specifically, granting budgetary constraints and available resources limit the government's performance in introducing climate-smart agricultural initiatives. Investment in research, extension services, infrastructure creation, and human capacity development all lag and this gradually builds up to a disorientation of efforts to ensure the practice of CSA as well as the continual build-up of the agricultural sector. On the other hand, stringent enforcement mechanisms as well as a shortage of authority to carry out policies are the obstacles that make the Kenyan framework to tackle agriculture and climate change laws less effective. In the absence of enforcement, compliance becomes uneven and the main goal of environmentally friendly agriculture is not reached, but the problem may even worsen[20].

1.4 Analysis

1.4.1 Current Policy and Legal Framework

Privately, Kenya has intensively taken part in talks which are geared towards mainstreaming climate change in agriculture matters, programmes, and doings. The other member state on world basis is the signatory to the United Nations Conventions on Combating Desertification (UNCCD), Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Conservation of Biodiversity (UNCBD). Kenya has submitted to UNFCCC ``two national communications' ' and has a following line of highly integrative policies, strategies and operational plans for climate change. Kenya has partnerships such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme’s (CAADP) (2010) and the East African Community Climate Change Policy (EACCCP) which it is implementing regionally. The both of these 2 frameworks are focused on better land and water management for productivity of agriculture through science, technology, and it’s diffusion to farmers as well to decrease of GHG emission from agriculture if they are collaborated have the ability to produce concrete solution for CSA[21].
Among the institutions assisting CSA in Kenya, one may cite those which grant funding, set up data management and monitoring systems, promote uptake of index insurance and provide for the development of technology. At the government level, where CSA and agriculture are booming, there are three ministries assigned these responsibilities namely: the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries (MLF), Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR), and the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI). Although these ministries have different ways of coming up with policies, strategies as well as managing laws and regulations, the coordination mechanisms and frameworks have become critical in achieving the overall CSA programs’ success. The coordinating instrument namely Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Programme (2015-2030) is well placed to provide the ischemic opportunity for coordinating the CSA interventions[22].

The Constitution of Kenya devolved pivotal areas (crop husbandry, livestock and disease control, the fisheries) among sub units (locals). This definitely generates an opportunity for speedy formulation and implementation of policies and plans that support CSA through direct monetary incentivization, while also creating a channel for knowledge delivery (e.g., agricultural extension services) to farmers. Achieving this, however, demands a step-by-step approach, starting with an analysis and establishing the government capacity of county governments to facilitate the requirements of agro based development needs[23].

The Kenya Vision 2030 under the National Development Plan has recognized the role of agriculture in averaging the GDP growth rate of 10% p.a. up to the year 2030 which in turn will help in alleviating hunger and poverty. Moreover the National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) emphasizes that a low carbon economy and climate resilient and pathway should be followed This captures the focal emphasis on strategic action planning processes in sectors in particular with climate risks, especially in agriculture. These CSA objectives are as varied as integrated forestry, no-till, and emissions reduction through agricultural waste management. The livestock sector is also encouraged by those solutions which focus on better management of grazing systems, biogas, diversification and better breeds of animals. The adaptive measures involve the planting of drought-tolerant crops, rainwater collection, integrated soil fertility management, livestock insurance, and market stabilization in livestock sectors as well as the establishment of strategic food reserves in the event of climate-induced disasters, and including climate change matters in agricultural extension services[24].

The Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS) recognizes the need to transform smallholder agriculture from low-productivity subsistence activities to a more innovative agribusiness enterprise operationalized through five-year Medium-Term Plans (MTPs). CSA is implicitly integrated in this vision, which prioritizes investment in both adaptation- and mitigation-related practices and technologies: weather information systems, research on drought-tolerant crop varieties, soil and water conservation, water harvesting, and strengthening integrated pest management systems (adaptation), as well as agricultural waste management, organic farming, mulching, agroforestry, and biotechnology (mitigation)[25]Finally The Climate Change Act, 2016 provides for the establishment of a Climate Change Fund. This provides an opportunity to enhance financing for CSA activities from both domestic and international sources.

1.4.2 Effectiveness of these frameworks in promoting sustainable agricultural practices

The effectiveness of Kenya's policy, legal, and regulatory frameworks in promoting sustainable agricultural practices, particularly Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), can be evaluated through several lenses. Firstly, the presence of comprehensive policies and legislation signifies a strong commitment to sustainable agriculture at the national level. These frameworks provide a solid foundation for promoting CSA practices and integrating climate change considerations into agricultural development planning. However, the effectiveness of these frameworks depends on their implementation capacity. Without adequate resources, training, and support for extension services, farmers may struggle to adopt and implement CSA practices effectively. Therefore, investment in capacity building and extension services is crucial to ensure that farmers have the knowledge, skills, and resources needed to embrace sustainable agricultural practices[26].

Moreover, the presence of enforcement mechanisms is essential to ensure compliance with sustainable agriculture standards and regulations. Strong enforcement mechanisms, including monitoring, compliance checks, and penalties for non-compliance, are necessary to deter violations and promote adherence to sustainable agricultural practices. Without effective enforcement, policies and regulations may remain mere paper documents without tangible impact on the ground. Therefore, strengthening enforcement mechanisms is crucial to ensure the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture frameworks in promoting CSA[27].

Additionally, institutional coordination plays a critical role in promoting sustainable agriculture. Effective coordination among government ministries, agencies, research institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector is essential for maximizing the impact of interventions and avoiding duplication of efforts. By fostering collaboration and knowledge sharing, coordinated efforts can enhance the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture frameworks in promoting CSA practices. However, institutional coordination can be challenging, requiring strong leadership, communication channels, and mechanisms for decision-making and resource allocation[28].

Furthermore, resource allocation is a key determinant of the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture frameworks. Adequate financial, human, and technical resources are necessary to support farmers in adopting CSA practices, improve infrastructure, and scale up sustainable agriculture initiatives. Without sufficient resources, policies and programs may struggle to achieve their intended objectives, limiting their impact on promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Therefore, ensuring adequate resource allocation is essential to enhance the effectiveness of sustainable agriculture frameworks in promoting CSA[29].

1.5 Gaps and Challenges

1.5.1 Identification of gaps in the current framework.

Despite Kenya's progress in developing policies and frameworks to promote Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), there are several gaps in the current framework that hinder the effective implementation of CSA practices.

One significant gap is the lack of integration and coordination among different government ministries and agencies responsible for agriculture, environment, and natural resources management. While various policies and strategies exist at the national level, there is often a disconnect between policy formulation and implementation at the grassroots level. This fragmentation hampers efforts to mainstream CSA into agricultural development planning and limits the effectiveness of interventions on the ground[30].

Additionally, there is a lack of targeted support and resources for smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority of agricultural producers in Kenya. Many CSA practices require upfront investment in technology, infrastructure, and capacity building, which may be beyond the means of small-scale farmers. Limited access to credit, extension services, and markets further exacerbates the challenges faced by smallholders in adopting CSA practices, leading to disparities in implementation across different farming systems and regions. Furthermore, there is a need for stronger enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with sustainable agriculture standards and regulations. While laws and policies supporting CSA exist, enforcement is often weak due to inadequate monitoring, limited human and financial resources, and corruption. This lack of enforcement undermines the effectiveness of the regulatory framework and allows unsustainable practices to persist, undermining efforts to promote CSA and achieve sustainable agricultural development goals[31]

1.5.2 Discussion of challenges faced in implementing effective CSA practices.

Limited access to appropriate technology and inputs

Limited access to appropriate technology and inputs poses a substantial challenge to implementing effective Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices in Kenya. Smallholder farmers, who constitute the backbone of the country's agricultural sector, face significant barriers in accessing climate-resilient crop varieties, quality seeds, and modern agricultural machinery. These resources are essential for implementing CSA practices that enhance resilience to climate change and improve productivity[32].

The high costs associated with climate-resilient inputs further compound the challenges faced by smallholder farmers. Many of these farmers operate on tight budgets and struggle to afford expensive seeds or machinery required for CSA practices. Additionally, inadequate distribution channels contribute to the limited availability of these inputs in rural areas, where smallholder farmers are predominantly located. As a result, farmers often find it difficult to access the necessary resources to adopt CSA practices, hindering their ability to improve resilience and adapt to climate change impacts[33].

The disparities in implementation of CSA practices are particularly pronounced among marginalized communities in remote rural areas. These communities often lack access to basic infrastructure and services, including agricultural input supply chains. As a result, they are disproportionately affected by the challenges associated with limited access to technology and inputs. The inability to adopt CSA practices further exacerbates existing inequalities, leaving marginalized farmers more vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and perpetuating cycles of poverty and food insecurity[34].

Addressing the challenge of limited access to appropriate technology and inputs requires comprehensive strategies that prioritize the needs of smallholder farmers, especially those in marginalized communities. This may involve initiatives to reduce the costs of climate-resilient inputs through subsidies or financial assistance programs. Improving distribution channels and infrastructure in rural areas can also help ensure that farmers have reliable access to quality seeds and machinery needed for CSA practices. Furthermore, capacity-building programs and extension services can play a crucial role in raising awareness and providing technical support to farmers, empowering them to adopt CSA practices effectively and build resilience to climate change.

Pervasive lack of awareness and capacity among farmers, extension workers, and policymakers regarding CSA practice

A pervasive lack of awareness and capacity regarding Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices among farmers, extension workers, and policymakers presents a significant obstacle to effective implementation in Kenya. Many farmers are unaware of the potential benefits of CSA or lack the necessary skills and knowledge to implement these practices effectively. This lack of awareness can lead to skepticism or resistance towards adopting new agricultural techniques, further hindering progress towards sustainable farming practices[35].

Extension services, which are vital for disseminating information and providing technical support to farmers, often face challenges in reaching all farmers, particularly those in remote or marginalized areas. Limited resources, including funding, personnel, and infrastructure, constrain the capacity of extension services to effectively deliver information and support to farmers across the country. As a result, many farmers do not have access to the guidance and resources needed to adopt CSA practices, limiting their ability to improve agricultural productivity and resilience to climate change. The lack of awareness and capacity regarding CSA practices also extends to policymakers, who play a critical role in shaping agricultural policies and programs. Without a clear understanding of the benefits and potential impacts of CSA, policymakers may prioritize other agricultural strategies or allocate resources inefficiently. This can result in missed opportunities to support sustainable farming practices and address pressing challenges related to food security, climate change, and rural development[36].

Climate variability and extreme weather events

Kenya's agricultural sector faces considerable vulnerability to climate variability and extreme weather events, presenting substantial challenges to the effective implementation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices. Erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks are common occurrences that can disrupt agricultural production and undermine the resilience of farming systems across the country. Erratic rainfall patterns, a hallmark of climate variability, can significantly impact crop growth cycles, water availability, and overall agricultural productivity. Farmers rely on predictable rainfall patterns for planting and harvesting crops, but unpredictable weather can lead to crop failures, reduced yields, and economic losses. In such conditions, CSA practices designed to optimize water use efficiency and improve soil moisture retention become crucial for maintaining agricultural productivity and resilience[37].

Prolonged droughts represent another significant challenge to Kenya's agricultural sector. Droughts can lead to water scarcity, reduced soil moisture, and diminished pasture availability, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Farmers face difficulties in sustaining livestock and cultivating crops under such conditions, leading to food insecurity, loss of livelihoods, and increased vulnerability among rural communities. CSA practices that emphasize drought-resistant crop varieties, water harvesting techniques, and soil conservation measures are essential for building resilience to drought and mitigating its impacts on agricultural systems.

Floods, although less frequent than droughts, can also have devastating consequences for agriculture in Kenya. Heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding can damage crops, infrastructure, and agricultural land, leading to soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and loss of productive assets. CSA practices that focus on flood mitigation, such as agroforestry, contour plowing, and improved drainage systems, can help reduce the vulnerability of farming systems to flood-related risks and improve their resilience in the face of extreme weather events.

Institutional and governance challenges

Institutional and governance challenges pose significant barriers to the effective implementation of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Kenya. Weak coordination among government ministries, limited funding and resources, and insufficient capacity for policy implementation and enforcement hinder progress in promoting CSA practices at both the national and local levels. One of the key challenges is the lack of coordination among government ministries and agencies responsible for agriculture, environment, and natural resources management. The fragmented approach to policy making and implementation limits the effectiveness of CSA interventions and results in duplication of efforts. Without clear coordination mechanisms and collaborative initiatives, it becomes challenging to mainstream CSA into agricultural development planning and ensure coherence across different sectors.

Limited funding and resources further impede efforts to promote CSA implementation in Kenya. The allocation of financial resources for agricultural development is often insufficient to meet the growing demands for climate-resilient agriculture. As a result, important initiatives related to research, extension services, capacity-building, and infrastructure development may be underfunded or neglected, hampering progress in promoting CSA practices and building resilience in the agricultural sector.

Additionally, there is a lack of capacity for policy implementation and enforcement, particularly at the local level. Government agencies responsible for overseeing agricultural policies and regulations may lack the necessary human and technical resources to effectively enforce compliance and monitor progress. This weakens the regulatory framework and undermines efforts to promote sustainable farming practices and address pressing challenges related to climate change and food security.

Political and economic factors also influence decision-making and resource allocation in Kenya, which can divert attention away from long-term sustainability goals. Short-term political agendas and economic priorities may take precedence over investments in climate-resilient agriculture and sustainable development. Without strong political will and commitment to prioritize CSA implementation, efforts to mainstream climate-smart practices into agricultural development planning may be hindered.

1.6 Case Studies

1.6.1 Examples where CSA has been successfully implemented or faced significant hurdles in Kenya.

One successful example is the adoption of agroforestry systems in Kenya's Rift Valley region. Agroforestry involves integrating trees into agricultural landscapes, providing multiple benefits such as soil conservation, improved water retention, and increased biodiversity. Farmers in the Rift Valley have successfully implemented agroforestry practices, planting trees alongside their crops to enhance soil fertility, mitigate erosion, and provide additional sources of income through the sale of timber and fruits. This approach has demonstrated positive impacts on both agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability[38].

On the other hand, the promotion of conservation agriculture has faced significant hurdles in Kenya. Conservation agriculture aims to minimize soil disturbance, maintain soil cover, and diversify crop rotations to enhance soil health and productivity. However, widespread adoption has been limited due to various challenges, including the high costs of initial investment in machinery and equipment, limited access to quality seeds and inputs, and cultural preferences for traditional farming practices. Additionally, erratic rainfall patterns and water scarcity in some regions further complicate the adoption of conservation agriculture, highlighting the need for context-specific approaches and targeted support.

Another case study involves the implementation of climate-resilient crop varieties in Kenya's semi-arid regions. Drought-tolerant and heat-resistant crop varieties have been developed and promoted to help farmers adapt to changing climate conditions. These varieties have shown promising results in improving yields and reducing vulnerability to climate-related risks. However, challenges such as limited access to quality seeds, inadequate extension services, and market constraints have hampered the widespread adoption of these varieties, particularly among smallholder farmers with limited resources[39].

Additionally, community-based natural resource management initiatives, such as water harvesting and soil conservation projects, have been successfully implemented in various parts of Kenya. These initiatives involve community participation in planning, implementing, and managing natural resource conservation efforts, fostering ownership and sustainability. However, scaling up these initiatives and ensuring their long-term viability require supportive policies, institutional frameworks, and adequate funding, which remain challenges in many cases[40].

1.6.2 Specific recommendations for policy adjustments or new regulations to better support CSA

Several specific recommendations for policy adjustments or new regulations can better support Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Kenya:

Firstly, there is a need to strengthen coordination among government ministries and agencies responsible for agriculture, environment, and natural resources management. Establishing a dedicated inter-ministerial task force or coordinating body for CSA can facilitate collaboration, streamline efforts, and ensure coherence in policy development and implementation.

Secondly, increasing investment in agricultural research, extension services, and capacity-building initiatives is essential. This includes funding for research and development of climate-resilient crop varieties, training programs for farmers and extension workers on CSA practices, and establishment of demonstration plots to showcase successful implementation. Thirdly, enhancing access to finance and inputs for smallholder farmers is critical for promoting CSA adoption. Introducing targeted subsidies or credit schemes for climate-resilient seeds, fertilizers, and equipment can help overcome financial barriers and incentivize farmers to invest in CSA practices.

Moreover, improving access to markets and value chains for climate-smart products can create economic incentives for farmers to adopt sustainable farming practices. This includes supporting the development of market infrastructure, establishing quality standards for CSA products, and promoting certification schemes for environmentally friendly agricultural practices. Additionally, integrating climate change adaptation and mitigation considerations into land use planning and agricultural extension services is essential. This involves mainstreaming CSA principles into national and county-level development plans, zoning regulations, and extension programs to ensure that climate-resilient practices are prioritized and promoted.

Furthermore, strengthening enforcement mechanisms and regulatory frameworks related to land use, water management, and environmental conservation can help ensure compliance with CSA practices and standards. This includes enforcing regulations on soil conservation, water harvesting, and sustainable land management to mitigate environmental degradation and promote long-term sustainability.

1.6.3 Conclusion

In summary, the analysis of Kenya's policy, legal, and regulatory framework regarding Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) underscores several critical points. Firstly, Kenya's agricultural sector faces significant challenges due to climate variability and extreme weather events, which threaten food security, livelihoods, and rural development. These challenges necessitate the adoption of CSA practices to enhance resilience and mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture. Secondly, while Kenya has developed policies and strategies to promote CSA, there are notable gaps and challenges in the current framework. Weak coordination among government ministries, limited funding and resources, insufficient capacity for policy implementation and enforcement, and political and economic factors impede effective CSA implementation at both national and local levels. Additionally, the lack of awareness and capacity among farmers, extension workers, and policymakers regarding CSA practices further complicates implementation efforts. Many farmers lack the necessary skills and knowledge to adopt CSA practices effectively, while extension services struggle to reach all farmers, particularly those in remote or marginalized areas. Furthermore, Kenya's legal and regulatory framework for agriculture and climate change lacks coherence and integration, leading to fragmented approaches to CSA promotion. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms, improving coordination among relevant ministries and agencies, and increasing funding and support for CSA initiatives are imperative.

Bibliography

Amwata, D. A. (2020). Situational analysis study for the agriculture sector in Kenya.

César, E., Ekbom, A., & Nyangena, W. (2014). Environmental and Climate Change Policy Brief: Kenya. SIDA’s Helpdesk for Environment and Climate Change.

Chesterman, S., & Neely, C. (2015). Evidence and policy implications of climate-smart agriculture in Kenya. CCAFS Working Paper.

Dinesh, D., Zougmore, R. B., Vervoort, J., Totin, E., Thornton, P. K., Solomon, D., ... & Campbell, B. M. (2018). Facilitating change for climate-smart agriculture through science-policy engagement. Sustainability, 10(8), 2616.

Faling, M., & Biesbroek, R. (2019). Cross-boundary policy entrepreneurship for climate-smart agriculture in Kenya. Policy Sciences, 52(4), 525-547.

Gichenje, H., Muñoz-Rojas, J., & Pinto-Correia, T. (2019). Opportunities and limitations for achieving land degradation-neutrality through the current land-use policy framework in Kenya. Land, 8(8), 115.

Gichenje, H., Muñoz-Rojas, J., & Pinto-Correia, T. (2019). Opportunities and limitations for achieving land degradation-neutrality through the current land-use policy framework in Kenya. Land, 8(8), 115.

Kameri-Mbote, P., & Kabira, N. (2023). Gender equality and climate change in plural legal contexts: A critical analysis of Kenya's law and policy framework. In Feminist Frontiers in Climate Justice (pp. 165-187). Edward Elgar Publishing.

Kibugi, R. (2021). Assessing Kenyan law and practice in the mainstreaming of a low carbon development pathway in Agriculture. CCLR, 15, 60.

Kinyua, I. W., Mwongera, C., Osumba, J., & Ndetu, V. (2021). Climate change adaptation reporting requirements in Kenya's agriculture sector.

Koasidis, K., Nikas, A., Karamaneas, A., Saulo, M., Tsipouridis, I., Campagnolo, L., ... & Doukas, H. (2022). Climate and sustainability co-governance in Kenya: A multi-criteria analysis of stakeholders' perceptions and consensus. Energy for Sustainable Development, 68, 457-471.

Maina, I., Newsham, A., & Okoti, M. (2013). Agriculture and climate change in Kenya: climate chaos, policy dilemmas. Future Agricultures, 70.

Makate, C. (2019). Effective scaling of climate smart agriculture innovations in African smallholder agriculture: A review of approaches, policy and institutional strategy needs. Environmental science & policy, 96, 37-51.

Muchuru, S., & Nhamo, G. (2019). A review of climate change adaptation measures in the African crop sector. Climate and development, 11(10), 873-885.

Mutimba, S., & Wanyoike, R. (2013). Towards a coherent and cost-effective policy response to climate change in Kenya: Country report.

Naeku, M. J. (2020). Climate change governance: An analysis of the climate change legal regime in Kenya. Environmental Law Review, 22(3), 170-183.

Naess, L. O., Newell, P., Newsham, A., Phillips, J., Quan, J., & Tanner, T. (2015). Climate policy meets national development contexts: Insights from Kenya and Mozambique. Global Environmental Change, 35, 534-544.

Newell, P., & Taylor, O. (2018). Contested landscapes: the global political economy of climate-smart agriculture. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 45(1), 108-129.

Nyangena, W., Guthiga, P. M., Ogada, M., & Sikei, G. (2017). Agricultural Sector Policies and Climate Change in Kenya: Nexus between Research and Practice. Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis.

Nyasimi, M., Radeny, M. A., & Kinyangi, J. (2013). Climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives for agriculture in East Africa. CCAFS Working Paper.

Odhengo, P., Atela, J., Steele, P., Orindi, V., & Imbali, F. (2019). Climate finance in Kenya: review and future outlook. Climate Finance Policy Brief, 1.

Olashore, O. O. (2019). Implementation of the international legal framework regarding climate change in developing countries; A review of Nigeria, Kenya, and Botswana’s environmental provisions governing climate change. Environmental Law Review, 21(3), 189-209.

Radeny, M. A., Amwata, D., Hunt, S., Mungai, C., Tumbo, M., Eshetu, Z., ... & Solomon, D. (2022). Review of Policies and Frameworks on Climate Change, Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Security in Eastern Africa: Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. AICCRA Working Paper.

Radeny, M., Mungai, C., Amwata, D., Osumba, J. J., & Solomon, D. (2020). Climate change, agriculture, food and nutrition security policies and frameworks in Kenya.

Totin, E., Segnon, A. C., Schut, M., Affognon, H., Zougmoré, R. B., Rosenstock, T., & Thornton, P. K. (2018). Institutional perspectives of climate-smart agriculture: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 10(6), 1990.

Wambua, C. (2019). The Kenya climate change act 2016: Emerging lessons from a pioneer law. CCLR, 13, 257.